Important question for Artificial Intelligence university exam

 (1)What is Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence? Explain the four approaches in detail. 

->INTELIGENCE-:

  Intelligence has been defined in many ways the capacity for logic, understanding, 

  self awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity,

  critical thinking,nd problem solving More generally, it can be described as

  the ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge

  to be applied towards adaptive behaviours withinan environment or context.

->ARTIFICIAL INTELIGENCE-:

  Artificial intelligence is wide ranging branch of computer science concerned 

  with building smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require 

  human intelligence AI is an interdisciplinary science with multiple approaches

  AI is an art which is used to make machines which can understand likes humans, works

  like humans, predicts like humans and make decisions like humansArtificial Intelligence

  Artificial Intelligence Prepared.

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, artificial intelligence

is The science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer

programs.

Artificial Intelligence is a way of creating a computer or mobile, a robot, or an 

application which can think intelligently just in the way a normal human think and process 

his/her thoughts.

It is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of intelligent

machines which work and react like humans.

Various application of AI includes gaming, natural language processing, expert systems,

speech recognition, handwriting recognition, and intelligent robots.

The term “ was introduced in 1945 AI saw major advantages after 1990 in various fields.

->APROACHES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELIGENCE-:

1.thinking humanly

2.acting humanly

3.thinking rationally

4.acting rationally

->1.Thinking humanly-:If we are going to say that a given program thinks like a human, we must have some way of determining

 how humans think We need to get inside the actual workings of human minds There are two ways to do

 this through introspection trying to catch our own thoughts as they go by or through psychological

 experiments Once we have a sufficiently precise theory of the mind, it becomes possible to express the

 theory as a computer program If the program's input/output and timing behavior matches human

 behavior, that is evidence that some of the program's mechanisms may also be operating in humans. 

For example, Newell and Simon, who developed GPS, the ``General Problem Solver''Solver''(Newell and Simon,

 1961 were not content to have their program correctly solve problems They were more concerned with

 comparing the trace of its reasoning steps to traces of human subjects solving the same problems This is

 in contrast to other researchers of the same time (such as Wang 1960 who were concerned with

 getting the right answers regardless of how humans might do it The interdisciplinary field of cognitive

 science brings together computer models from AI and experimental techniques from psychology to try to

 construct precise and testable theories of the workings of the human mind Although cognitive science is a

 fascinating field in itself, 

->2.Acting humanly-:Less than a decade after breaking the Nazi encryption

 machine Enigma and helping the Allied Forces win World War II, mathematician 

 Alan Turing changed history a second time with a simple question:"Can machines think?"

Turing's paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (1950) and it's subsequent

 Turing Test, established the fundamental goal and vision of artificial intelligence

->3.Thinking rationally-:The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify

 "right thinking,'' that is, irrefutable reasoning processes His famous syllogisms provided patterns  

 for argument structures that always gave correct conclusions given correct premises For example,example,

 Socrates is a man all men are mortal therefore Socrates is mortal These laws of thought were supposed 

 to govern the operation of the mind, and initiated the field of logic.

The development of formal logic in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which we describe in more detail in

 Chapter 6 provided a precise notation for statements about all kinds of things in the world and the relations between

 them ..(Contrast this with ordinary arithmetic notation, which provides mainly for equality and inequality statements

 about numbers By 1965 programs existed that could, given enough time and memory, take a description of a problem

 in logical notation and find the solution to the problem, if one exists ..(If there is no solution, the program might never

 stop looking for it The so called logicist tradition within artificial intelligence hopes to build on such programs to create

 intelligent systems.

->4.Acting rationally-:Acting rationally means acting so as to achieve one's goals, given one's beliefs An agent is just

 something that perceives and acts In the logical approach to AI, the emphasis is on correct inferences

 This is often part of being a rational agent because one way to act rationally is to reason logically and then

 act on ones conclusions But this is not all of rationality because agents often find themselves in situations

 where there is no provably correct thing to do, yet they must do something

There are also ways to act rationally that do not seem to involve inference, e g reflex actions

The study of AI as rational agent design has two advantages

It is more general than the logical approach because correct inference is only a useful

mechanism for achieving rationality, not a necessary one

It is more amenable to scientific development than approaches based on human behaviour or

human thought because a standard of rationality can be defined independent of humans.

 

(2).Discuss the concept of Agents (with its components) and its Environment with proper diagram.

-> An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment The agents act in their environment

 The environment may contain other agents

An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon that 

 environment through effectors

A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose,tongue and skin parallel to the 

 sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors

A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and various 

 motors and actuators for effectors

A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

-> What is agent?

  •An agent is anything that can perceive its environment

 through sensors and acts upon that environment

 through effectors

•An agent is something that has senses and it can act, though it is

 not a human or a living creature

•Not all agents are intelligent

•Agents can be a robot, software or a softbot (Software robot)

•Agent’s behavior is described by agent function that maps any

 given percept sequence to action

-> Agent Terminology-:

 Performance Measure of Agent- It is the criteria, which determines how successful an agent is.

 Behavior of Agent- It is the action that agent performs after any given sequence of percepts

 Percept- It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance

 Percept Sequence- It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till date

 Agent Function- It is a map from the precept sequence to an action

-> What is environment?

 It is the global space where an agent performs given actions With the help of sensors, actions, percepts

 (ability to see, hear, understood etc Agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance) and effectors(agents act in

 the environment with help of effectors), agent work in the environment

(3).List and Explain Applications of Artificial Intelligence (State of the Art).

LIST-

1.Robotic Vehicles

2.Speech Recognition

3.Autonomous Planning and Scheduling

4.Game Playing

5.Spam Fighting

6.Robotics

7.Machine Translation

8.Logistics Planning

1.Robotic Vehicles-:

A driverless robotic car named STANLEY sped through the rough terrain of the Mojave dessert at 22 mph,

finishing the 132 mile course first to win the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge STANLEY is a Volkswagen

Touareg outfitted with cameras, radar, and laser rangefinders to sense the environment and onboard

software to command the steering, braking, and acceleration Thrun 2006 The following year CMU’s

BOSS won the Urban Challenge, safely driving in traffic through the streets of a closed Air Force base,

obeying traffic rules and avoiding pedestrians and other vehicles.

2.Speech Recognition-:

A traveler calling United Airlines to book a flight can have the entire conversation guided by an automated

speech recognition and dialog management system.

3.Autonomous Planning and Scheduling-:

A hundred million miles from Earth, NASA’s Remote Agent program became the first on board

autonomous planning program to control the scheduling of operations for a spacecraft Jonsson et al

2000 REMOTE AGENT generated plans from high level goals specified from the ground and monitored

the execution of those plans detecting, diagnosing, and recovering from problems as they occurred

Successor program MAPGEN (Al Chang et al 2004 plans the daily operations for NASA’s Mars

Exploration Rovers, and MEXAR 2 Cesta et al 2007 did mission planning both logistics and science

planning for the European Space Agency’s Mars Express mission in 2008.

4.Game Playing-:

IBM’s DEEP BLUE became the first computer program to defeat the world champion in a chess match

when it bested Garry Kasparov by a score of 3 5 to 2 5 in an exhibition match (Goodman and Keene,

1997 Kasparov said that he felt a “new kind of intelligence” across the board from him Newsweek

magazine described the match as “The brain’s last stand The value of IBM’s stock increased by 18

billion Human champions studied Kasparov’s loss and were able to draw a few matches in subsequent

years, but the most recent human computer matches have been won convincingly by the computer.

5.Spam Fighting-:

Each day, learning algorithms classify over a billion messages as spam, saving the recipient from having

to waste time deleting what, for many users, could comprise 80 or 90 of all messages, if not classified

away by algorithms Because the spammers are continually updating their tactics, it is difficult for a static

programmed approach to keep up, and learning algorithms work best Sahami et al 1998 Goodman and

Heckerman, 2004

6.Robotics-:

The iRobot Corporation has sold over two million Roomba robotic vacuum cleaners for home use The

company also deploys the more rugged PackBot to Iraq and Afghanistan where it is used to handle

hazardous materials, clear explosives, and identify the location of snipers.

7.Machine Translation-:

A computer program automatically translates from Arabic to English, allowing an English speaker to see

the headline Ardogan Confirms That Turkey Would Not Accept Any Pressure, Urging Them to Recognize

Cyprus The program uses a statistical model built from examples of Arabic to English translations and

from examples of English text totaling two trillion words Brants et al 2007 None of the computer

scientists on the team speak Arabic, but they do understand statistics and machine learning algorithms.

8.Logistics Planning-:

During the Persian Gulf crisis of 1991 U S forces deployed a Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool,

DART (Cross and Walker, 1994 to do automated logistics planning and scheduling for transportation

This involved up to 50 000 vehicles, cargo, and people at a time, and had to account for starting points,

destinations, routes, and conflict resolution among all parameters The AI planning techniques generated

in hours a plan that would have taken weeks with older methods The Defense Advanced Research

Project Agency ( stated that this single application more than paid back DARPA’s 30 year

investment in AI

(4). Write short note on Turing Test and also explain its components.

Less than a decade after breaking the Nazi encryption machine Enigma and helping the Allied Forces win World

 War II, mathematician Alan Turing changed history a second time with a simple question ::"Can machines think?"

Turing's paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" 1950 and it's subsequent Turing Test, established the

 fundamental goal and vision of artificial intelligence

A Turing Test is a method of inquiry in artificial intelligence for determining whether or not a computer is capable of

 thinking like a human being The test is named after Alan Turing, the founder of the Turning Test and an English

 computer scientist, cryptanalyst, mathematician and

 theoretical biologist.

Turing proposed that a computer can be said to possess artificial intelligence if it can mimic human responses

 under specific conditions The original Turing Test requires three terminals, each of which is physically separated from 

 the other two One terminal is operated by a computer, while the other two are operated by humans.

->Components required for the Test-:

1.Machine Learning Knowledge

2.Autonomous Processing

3.Knowledge Representation

4.Natural Language Processing

1.Machine learning- to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and

extrapolate patterns.

2.Automated reasoning- to use the stored information to answer questions and

to draw new conclusions

3.Knowledge representation- to store information provided before or during the

interrogation

4.Knowledge representation- to store information provided before or during the

interrogation